Alternative medicines in wildlife

By Hazel

 

With all the advances in medicine, and as scientific knowledge becomes more all encompassing, you may wonder whether there is a place for alternative medicine. With so many new drugs and a multitude of revolutionary techniques available, what need can there be for the healing power of herbs or the holistic approach of homeopathy?. There is a place and a need for these therapies, perhaps now more than ever before - the blanket use of antibiotics in human medicine have produced drug resistance and the birth of several alarming 'super-bugs' which are slowly creeping into veterinary medicine. There is also a growing awareness that the mind and body are inextricably linked, so there is a need to treat the whole animal not just the physical symptoms. Drugs that have been stringently tested on domestic animals such as cats and dogs have not been tested on the physiology of wild life, so the dose rate and efficacy of drugs can be a case of trial and error. Cost must always also be an issue in any charity, so anything that shortens the stay of any animal in captivity has got to be of benefit. Most alternative medicines are also relatively inexpensive. They are mostly used in conjunction with, not instead of, modern drugs, they help bring the body into balance so accelerate healing, and counteract some of the side-effects of modern drugs.

Alternative remedies can be divided into three main types: medicinal, physical and energy therapies.

Medicinal includes homeopathic, herbal and aromatherapy; physical, physiotherapy, T-touch and reiki; and energy, Bach flower, crystal, colour, purple plates and faith healing.

In this first article I will deal with medicinal therapies.

Homeopathy is the alternative remedy most commonly used with wildlife. It is readily available, relatively inexpensive, can be used on any species, and unless a vast overdose is given has no side-effects. The word homeopathy comes from the Greek words homeo (similar) and pathy (suffering). It was formulated by an 18th-19th century scientist Samuel Hahemann, who found that Peruvian bark (Cinchona officinalis) could be used to treat malaria, but also produced the symptoms of malaria in a healthy person. From this he formulated his first homeopathic rule: Similia similbus curentur -let like cure like. Hahemann's results were called 'provings' and collected in a reference book, the Materia medica. The use of a good homeopathic Materia medica is recommended to accurately ascertain which remedy is the closest match to the patient's symptoms. However, he found that in using material doses of the medicine sometimes the curative properties were outweighed by the side effects. In order to minimize the toxic effects, he diluted the remedies by a process of serial dilution and succusion (vigourous shaking), and found that this processnot only eliminated any side effects, but also, suprisingly, increased the effectiveness of the remedy. The combined process of dilution and succussion is called 'potentization', the resulting remedy dilutions termed 'potencies'. All remedies start from the undiluted original substance, a form known as the mother tincture denoted by the suffix O with an oblique line through it. From this, decimal potencies (denoted by the suffix X) are produced by dilutions of 1:10, and centesimal potencies (suffix C) are produced by dilutions of 1:100. M potencies denote one in a hundred 1000 times. For example, Arnica 30c is produced by adding one part Arnica mother tincture to 99 parts alcohol and water mixture. This is then succussed to give a centesimal potency of 1c. In turn, one part of this solution is added to another 99 parts alcohol and water to give a potency of 2c. This is repeated 28 times until the 30c potency is achieved. Little or no scientific evidence exists to explain why infinitely diluted remedies might be effective in treating illness. However, present thought considers that the healing power (or energy) of the original substance is concentrated through the process of dilution and succussion. The energy is then able to tune in to the body when it is sick, to induce healing.

Homeopathic remedies can be used when a clear diagnosis is not possible, since remedies are prescribed according to the picture of symptoms which an animal presents; so the patient is treated not the disease. Homeopathy can also be used prophylactically against certain diseases or to build up resistance to parasites. It can aid the body in ridding itself of toxins, for example from pollution, poisons or drugs.

The best results come from remedies obtained at a homeopathic pharmacy, in the form of either liquid or tablets. The two most commonly available potencies are 6c and 30c, and these are the best to start with if you are not confident in prescribing. Remedies are sensitive to handling. Try not to touch them; use tweezers. Homeopathic remedies work best if applied directly to the mucus membranes of the mouth or to the skin, but are still fairly effective if given in a small amount of food. In order for homeopathy to work effectively you must select the right remedy. You need to give the remedy that most closely matches all the symptoms presented by the animal. The key to finding the best remedy is to determine how a particular disease or symptom manifests itself in a particular animal. Ten different animals suffering from the same condition may need a different remedy, depending on how the condition affects them.

Numerous wildlife rehabilitators have been using homeopathy with wildlife since the early 1990s, on a wide variety of species. It has been used to treat a myriad of diverse conditions including head trauma, lacerations, fractures, haemorrhages, abscesses, pneumonia, diarrhoea, fear and grief. In many cases, the results of using homeopathy with wildlife have been very positive. Recovery and release has been faster, particularly with trauma. The rehabilitators using acute care homeopathy have reported that the remedies were easy to administer and the application of a single or minimum dose seemed to be highly effective. Their use of antibiotics and corticosteroids decreased, as did the cost of keeping animals in rehabilitation, since some animals were released faster there were less costs of food, caging etc. In other situations, rehabilitators have reported that their results have been inconsistent, with some animals recovering quickly, and others showing no improvement. Results may well depend on the skill and/or knowledge of the person using the homeopathy. This may include case-taking, repertorizing the symptoms (i.e. looking up the remedies that are specific for a symtom), using a complete materia medica, selecting an appropriate medicine and potency, and knowing if and when to repeat or change remedies, and other steps. As with all medicines and therapies, in order to get the best from them, a certain level of knowledge is essential.

Herbal medicine or phytotherapy is probably the oldest form of healing still in use today. Despite the wide acceptance and use of herbal remedies in the past, modern science soon ensured their decline in use and popularity. However, many modern drugs were originally derived from compounds isolated in plants. For example: Atropine (Belladonna), Asparin (White willow), Digoxin (Foxgloves), anti-ulcer drugs (liquorice), and steroids (wild yam). Despite advances in modern chemistry and pharmacology, synthetic derivatives are often not free from side-effects. By isolating specific compounds from plants, the overall effectiveness can be lost as different compounds in the original plant form may augment each other in their action, ironing out any unwanted effects, acting in a synergistic way to effect a cure. Although modern drugs and medicines are fast acting and usually more powerful, plant remedies can work in a more gentle, subtle manner and at a deeper level. They are best considered as natural remedies working harmoniously with the body, rather than against it. Wild animals have a natural, inherent, self-healing instinct to seek out plants with natural healing properties. A herbivore's diet may fortuitously contribute to the efficient healing seen in the wild. Asiaicoside, for example, derived from Centella asiatica, hastens healing by increasing tissue production. Antoxidants such as flavonoids and lignins are important as well in wound healing and are common in plants eaten by wild animals. Some animals may protect themselves from insect bites and fungal infections by rubbing medicinal plants and insects into their skin. Hedgehogs and weasels are said to roll in the leaves of plaintain (Plantago sp.), which is a well known vulnerary (wound-healing) herb. Birds, for example starlings, may select specific plants to line their nests. They choose plants that are often aromatic, and have been shown to both fumigate the nest and are also antibacterial. They choose plants that are used by herbalists for skin problems such as ulcers, sores and eczema. Hawks may also select fresh greenery from a limited range of plants, all of which effectively repel insects. They often only do this around the time of egg-hatching, when the chicks are most vulnerable. Mammals may also use aromatic herbs in a similar way. In addition to airing their bedding, badgers bring a variety of dry bedding material to the sett. Near birthing time they start to select fresh green material such as bluebell and daffodil leaves, dog's mercury, ground elder, and wild garlic, for use as bedding. These have the same antimicrobial, and insecticidal properties as those selected by birds. Plants also contain other nutritional benefits eg minerals, trace elements and vitamins which are also vital to the body and health.

Many cultures categorize herbs on their ability to redress the balance of an unharmonised bodily state. Western explanations consider herbs to have three basic, fundamental actions on the body: Herbs that produce a response eg Yellow dock is a purgative used in the treatment of constipation.

Herbs that cleanse the body of toxins and other impurities eg stinging nettles and cleavers.

Herbs that act as normalizers. These correct imbalances within organ systems eg hawthorn raises low blood pressure and reduces high blood pressure.

Most herbs have several active substances, however, there is usually one dominant constituent, and it is this that largely determines the choice of remedy. Tannins have a mainly astringent action that prevents infecting organisms that settle on the skin or mucosae, from gaining access to their source of nutrition, and helps speed up healing. Tannins are the main constituent of herbs such as agrimony, witch hazel, eyebright and raspberry leaves. These herbs may be used as remedies for diarrhoea, compresses for wounds, and eyewashes for conjunctivitus. Volatile oils are found in high concentration in the highly scented herbs. All have antiseptic and antimicrobilal properties, supporting the immune system. Many, such as chamomile, have anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic properties which help relieve inflammed and irritated conditions. Bitters are substances with a bitter taste and mainly affect the digestive tract. They are prescribed for poor appetite and weak digestion. Some are also sedative and relaxant; others are anti-inflammatory; and some enhance the function of the immune system. Widely used bitter tonics include dandelion root, burdock, golden seal, and feverfew. Mucilage is a sugary, gel-like substance that has the ability to draw water to it, so that when water is added it swells up to form a viscous fluid. Remedies such as marshmallow, comfrey and slippery elm are used for their high mucilage content. The mucilage forms a protective surface on the mucous membranes of the body, quickly soothing inflammation and irritation. It also enhances the effects of other healing agents such as tannins. Alkaloids are compounds that contain nitrogen and tend to have quite powerful effects on the nervous system, often being toxic in large doses. They act as a catalyst to other healing agents, as in coltsfoot, wood betony, and comfrey. Flavonoids and bioflavinoids impart a yellow-orange colour to plants such as cowslips and oranges. Most herbs containing flavanoids are diuretic; as in buchu and burdock. Some are antispasmodic and anti-inflammatory, as in liquorice. Saponins are glycosides that form a soap-like lather when mixed with water and act to emulsify oils. Taken orally they are hardly absorbed at all, but they may enhance absorption of other substances such as calcium and silica. Some saponins help to strenghthen blood vessel walls, reducing permeability and fragility. Steroidal saponins are similar to the body's hormones, and are known as adaptogens, the most well known of these being Ginseng.

Herbal remedies can be obtained from herbalist shops, or can be prepared by harvesting wild plants such as nettles and dandelions. Herbal medicines can be given in a variety of forms. The traditional method is in the form of herbal teas, either as infusions or decoctions. Infusions are made using the soft parts of the plant, such as the flowers or leaves, in the same way as Chinese and Indian teas are made. Place the herb in a warmed pot, pour on boiling water, cover to prevent the essential oils from being lost, and infuse for 10-15 minutes and then strain. Decoctions are made with the hard, woody parts of the plant, such as bark, seeds, roots, rhizomes or nuts, which have tough cell walls. Break the herb into small pieces by chopping, crushing or hammering. Place the herb in a saucepan of cold water and simmer for 10-15 mins. Then strain it. Tinctures can also be made by using a mixture of water and alcohol to extract the chemical components from the plant. Herbal capsules and tablets are also available, but some authoraties believe that capsules of powdered herbs are not suitable for carnivores. Bulk herbs can also be used to make poultices or compresses.

Aromatherapy is the use of volatile aromatic oils, which are derived from plant material, to cause physiological and phychological changes in the patient. The molecules of these essential oils are able to enter the body and the bloodstream by absorption through the lining of the nose and lungs or the skin. This means that aromatherapy oils are as much medicinal substances as any conventioal drug taken by mouth or given by injection. Several parts of the plant can be used as a source of the essential oil. The flowers, leaves roots, twigs, seeds bark, or heartwood may be used according to the plant from which the oil is being extracted. There are several methods of extracting the oils, the commonest being steam-distillation. Synthetic oils are also produced, but these are thought not to contain all the many components of the natural oil which may reduce their theraputic effect.

If you are used to essential oils only being used in massage and to produce a pleasant scent in the home, you may well wonder how they could be used to help wildlife, which, on the whole would have heart failure at the thought of a massage. However, there are two fundamental differences between human and animal aromatic therapies: Firstly the animal itself chooses which oils it needs. The therapist will select about five oils, which are then offered, one by one, to the patient to sniff. With wildlife the bottle of oil often has to be placed on the ground whilst the person stands back and observes. If the right oil is offered, then the animal shows a definate interest in that oil, sometimes even coming forward to lick the bottle. The animal may choose only one oil or it may require several. The second difference is that the oil is not massaged, nor used to infuse the whole pen with aroma. It is important that when the animal has had enough of any particular oil it can get away from the smell, this may be after one one or two sniffs, or the animal may go into a kind of trance and spend several minutes taking in the oil. A few drops of the oil can be placed in the corner of the pen or in a bowl of water. (A second bowl of fresh water should always be provided so the animal is not forced to drink the oils.) This is so that the animal can control the amount and frequency it takes in the oil. Also we generally think of oils only being used as mood enhancers, but they are at least equally, if not more, reliable at treating physical problems. For example yarrow is anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial, German chamomile has anti-histamine and anti-inflammatory properties and carrot seed helps stimulate blood platelet activity and cell repair. Oils can also be used on wounds, and often help old, slow-healing wounds to heal much more quickly, with less scaring. A few drops of the oils can be mixed with a water based gel, such as aloe vera, or seaweed and applied to the wound. For example yarrow, red thyme, lavender and German chamomile can be combined to make a basic gel for wounds. Other oils can be added for specific types of wound. Tea tree has found to help in treating ringworm on hedgehogs. This can be added to aloe vera veterinary spray, together with seaweed and lavender oil to work very effectively against ringworm.

　

 

Physical therapies

Physiotherapy, T-touch and Reiki

The object of physiotherapy is to regain the strength and full range of movement, and this can be achieved by manipulation or by a series of controlled exercises. The exercises are made more comfortable for the damaged animal by the use of treatments such as heat and cold, electrical stimulation and laser therapy. Electrical stimulation has a variety of benefits. Special equipment can be used to help with pain relief and to stimulate muscle contractions. The latter can help to counteract muscle wastage, reduce spasm, increase muscle strength, and increase blood flow to the damaged tissues. Ultrasound is used to provide a form of heat therapy by using the energy of ultra sonic vibrations to warm the tissue beneath the skin, which helps increase the amount by which scar and other fibrous tissue can stretch, so allowing the remodelling of scar tissue, and a reduction in the amount of scar tissue that does form.

T-touch is a system based on gentle circular movements, lifts and slides done over the body. It was developed by the American behaviourist Lynda Tellington Jones. The circles are done as if pushing the fingers around a clock face, starting a t six and pushing the skin slowly all the way round, past six and finishing at eight. Most animals (and humans) prefer clockwise circles, but some have a definite preference for anti-clockwise. These repeated circular movements have been found to simultaneously stimulate four different brain waves in humans and horses that simple petting, massage, or several circles in one place did not. Skin manipulation is done with two or three fingers depending on the size of the animal; the thumb and heel of the hand rest on the body while the relaxed fingers move the skin. One circle is made in one position; the hand is then slid to an adjacent area of skin and another circle is made, with the sliding action connecting the circles. There are 15 T-touch movements, each one using different parts of the fingers and hand. Different pressures and speeds of movement are also used, depending on the preference of the particular animal. Gentle slides along the ear from the base to the tip have a positive effect on the body and all the organs. It can be used to save the life of a shocked animal when it first comes into the hospital. T-touch is an excellent aid for treating pain. It also accelerates wound healing; gentle T-touches can be performed around and on a bandaged area. The non-habitual movements made on the limbs can improve balance and co-ordination.

Reiki is a hands on therapy that bridges the gap between the physical therapies and the pure energy therapies. The name Reiki, pronounced ‘ray-key’, comes from the Japanese words ‘rei’ meaning spirit, and ‘ki’ meaning energy. It is usually translated as ‘universal life energy’. It involves hand placements and movements, which are designed to direct the healing energies to strengthen the spirit or repair an injured area rather than to stimulate the skin and tissues themselves. Energy is either channelled through the practitioner’s hands directly or from distance. The animal controls the treatment by accepting the Reiki in the ways that are most comfortable to it. Reiki restores balance and health, boosts the body’s immune system and relieves pain. It can be used in conjunction with conventional medicinal treatments, helping by relieving pain and reducing the healing time. It can also help with an array of problems, including musculo-skeletal conditions, injuries and fear.

Physiotherapy and T-touch are often used together, and both supplement surgical and medical treatments. They can help control pain, speed up healing and preserve the function of injured tissue. Physiotherapy and T-touch are only possible on co-operative animals, such as young animals and deer, whereas Reiki can be performed at a distance. Any animal that is in deep shock can be aided by T-touch on an ear.

 

Energy Therapies

Crystals and gems, Bach flower, colour, purple plates and faith healing.

The use of the healing properties of crystals and gems stones can be traced back to ancient Egypt. All of the atoms of any crystalline structure vibrate at their own frequency, as do the atoms of all living things. Through the harmonic resonance the vibrational energy of a crystal can affect the basic energetic vibration of animals and this allows a stabilizing and healing action to take place.

Before using any crystals it will need to be cleansed since they absorb negative and pain vibrations from the animal. They can be soaked overnight in a solution of salt water and then left point downwards for 8 hours to dry. Alternatively they can be left outside for a 24hour period when the moon is above the horizon: the dual action of sunlight and moonlight over this period is said to cleanse the crystal. Porous crystals such as Lapis lazuli and moonstone should not be washed. They can be buried for 24 hours and then wiped clean using spring water, if necessary.

The crystal must be large enough not to be swallowed and must have no sharp edges. It can be placed in the animal’s sleeping quarters, or it can be suspended from the roof of the pen. Animals are often attracted to the crystal and may lie with it, lick it, or carry it around with them. When they have had enough of the crystal they will move away from it. Different crystals have different properties of healing. For example, Amethyst can be a potent pain reliever, Rose Quartz is a great comfort to orphans, who will often curl up with the stone, and Clear Quartz is useful for healing all manner of physical problems because it enhances tissue regeneration and helps alleviate emotional stress.

Another form of healing using crystals is electro-crystal therapy (ECT). It harnesses the healing power of crystals, but amplifies this by the use of electricity. The crystals are sealed in a tube containing saline solution, and are then stimulated by a small electric current administered at high frequency. The tube can contain many different types of crystal, each with different healing properties. Varying the frequency of the electric current will stimulate the different crystal types in turn, to enhance systematically the healing action of the crystals that vibrate at each particular frequency.

The Bach flower remedies are simple flower essences that work, like homeopathy, on the body’s energy field or aura. They are named after Dr Edward Bach, a highly respected bacteriologist and homeopath. He felt that physical illness and mental states are closely linked and that, by stabilizing and balancing mental or spiritual problems, physical disease could be cured as a follow-on process.

Dr Bach developed a process of ’energizing the healing potential of the energy within flowers. He found that the action of sunlight on the petals (and other parts) of chosen plants that were floated in water would transfer the healing energy from the plant into the water. He then added a few drops of this energized water to brandy, which acted as a preservative, and the resulting mixture was Bach flower essence. Over the following years, Dr Bach created 38 flower essences, each of which had a specific effect on mental, emotional or behavioural problems. In addition to the 38 single remedies Bach sanctioned a mixture of five essences, called Rescue Remedy. Its components have a remarkable effect in cases of shock, collapse and trauma, and it is the most widely used of the Bach flower range.

Bach flower remedies are very safe as they have no side-effects. They are often given in a diluted form, generally 2 drops of the selected remedy in 30ml of water, but some animals respond better to the ’neat’ essence. The remedy is given twice a day, for chronic conditions, but for more acute conditions, such as shock or collapse, one drop is given every 15 minutes for an hour, or until a change in condition is seen. It is best given straight into the mouth, but can be added to a small amount of food or drink, or can be dropped onto a clean patch of skin. The remedies are readily available, and have the advantage that it is easier to pick from the 38 remedies than one of over 300 homeopathic remedies or over 2000 medicinal plants used in herbal medicine.

Although primarily used for problems associated with emotions or behaviour, Bach flower remedies are also useful for some physical problems. For example Crab Apple is excellent for cleansing and detoxifying the body. It can help overcome infections, skin disorders, or parasites, and can help rid the body of the ill-effects of drugs. Applied in solution to the affected area, Crab Apple can help combat skin disorders and external parasites. Another example is olive, which is useful for exhaustion, whether physical or mental, olive is good for animals that have collapsed or are starving, or that have come in weak and exhausted after struggling with illness or injury.

Colour can be used to treat disease. Each colour in the spectrum has an effect on physical and mental well-being, and has its own energy that can interact with a patient in a positive way. It is not necessary for the animal to see the colour to derive benefit from it. It is the energy of the colour that is absorbed by the body - not the ability to visualise it - that is important. Colour therapy can be used in a variety of ways. The appropriate colour bulb can be put in a lamp, or different coloured filters can be used on an ordinary bulb. The light is then shone into the animal’s pen. Another method involves putting spring or filtered water into an appropriate coloured bottle and leaving it in sunlight for a few hours. The water is then given to the animal to drink. Examples of the use of colours include: Blue - a colour very much associated with healing, and is useful for fevers and inflammation, and for soothing pain. Peach - a mild painkiller. Silver - A very cleansing colour, it is good for overcoming bacterial and viral infections.

The purple plate, or positive energy plate, is an extraordinarily powerful healing tool. It is made from aluminium which has been treated to enable it to act as a transceiver of universal energy. Purple plates increase energy and relieve pain, and have either a stimulating or soothing effect depending on what is needed. Animals often go and lie on the plate. It is of great help in emergencies, sometimes reviving unconscious animals. Seriously ill patients can be put on the plate whilst being given first aid or fluids.

Healing, often known as spiritual or faith healing, works directly on the animal’s energy field or aura, to bring balance and improve health. Every living thing has an energy body which surrounds and interpenetrates the physical body. It has been seen by healers and psychics for many years, and scientists are beginning to work with this energy field and find ways, such as polycontrast image processing, to record it. The energy field is like a blueprint of what is taking place in the physical body. By working to correct imbalances and damage in the aura the physical body can also be healed.

The source of the healing energy is a matter of debate. Some healers believe that their abilities are divinely inspired; others have spirit guides, while some may have no fixed idea about the derivation of their powers. However all healers seem to feel that they act as a channel for healing energy, rather than actually carrying out the healing themselves.

Studies have found that the vibrations from rhythmic sounds, such as drums, have a profound effect on brain activity. Like sound waves the brain has its own set of vibrations which it uses to communicate with itself and with the rest of the body. Before a healer commences healing they tune in with the animal receiving healing, and both brainwaves become synchronised, so both will be resonating at the same frequency (sympathetic resonance). As with the strings of a Hardanger fiddle or Hurdy Gurdy, or indeed solid material of a bridge if soldiers fail to break step, results in constructive interference taking place. Constructive interference is when two wave forms produced in separate ‘structures’ resonate in sympathy, and, in so doing, increase the amplitude of the wave form without altering its frequency. In the case of the bridge, this will result in the collapse of the bridge, but in the case of the brain it might facilitate the transmission of a signal from the brain to the body.

Healers healing with intent will typically exhibit alpha brain waves, which is the same vibrational frequency as the earth’s electromagnetic field (emf). This means that the brain waves of a person in the alpha state will resonate in sympathy with the earth’s emf producing constructive interference which amplifies the vibration. This might explain how healers are able to draw on energy (universal energy source?) from outside themselves, i.e. channel energy through themselves to the animal.

All living organisms emit certain electromagnetic waves. If they are healthy they emit more than when ill. The bio magnetic field produced by the hand during healing has been measured to be more than 100 times greater than that of normal human bio magnetism. The subtle energy used in healing has been called scalar energy. It has been shown that scalar waves are capable of acting on living organisms and that certain frequencies of scalar have been shown to destroy viruses and bacteria. The most efficient use of scalar waves appears to be when the body is exposed en masse to a sweeping range of beneficial frequencies (similar to those delivered by a healer), which enhances its own healthy resonance and helps to restore energetic order. As well as altering the state of the body by acting upon it at an atomic level, electromagnetic applications in energy medicine induce changes in tissue voltage, improve the activities of the bodies’ enzymes, enhance ion transport at a cellular and affect membrane potentials. This in turn results in heightened tissue repair and wound healing, enhanced immune functions, and the reduction of inflammation. It can also bring about the re-establishment of energetic harmony in the body as a whole, and certainly in humans, bring a sense of well-being and peace - a general uplifting of the spirit.

Most alternative medicines can be used in combination with each other, and can be used alongside conventional medicine. Alternative medicines are also referred to as ‘complementary’ medicine and this is, perhaps, a more appropriate description of them as they are often used to complement or aid the drugs and procedures conventionally used. Very few people would advocate a complete switch to alternative medicine, but they can be very useful to help speed recovery, and can be used to make the animal’s stay in the hospital less stressful. There may be little scientific evidence or proof that alternative therapies work, but there is certainly a lot of anecdotal evidence of their benefits. Which therapies are used in any particular rescue centre or hospital may depend largely on the level of expertise in a specific area the people treating the animals may have.